Armies: The Army of the Shenandoah (CSA)

Image of Joseph E. Johnston by BattlefieldPortraits.com via Flickr

The Confederate Army of the Shenandoah was a short-lived unit.  It began as Virginia state troops that captured the U.S. Arsenal at Harper's Ferry in April 1861 and quickly grew into a 12,000-man force under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston.  The army merged with Beauregard's Army of the Potomac at the First Battle of Bull Run, and eventually this new, larger Army of the Potomac would become the foundation of the Army of Northern Virginia.

On April 18, 1861, with 360 Virginia state troops advancing, the U.S. Army garrison abandoned the United States Armory and Arsenal at Harper's Ferry after an attempt to torch the buildings and destroy the machinery.  Harper's Ferry residents doused the flames and saved the machinery.  The state troops quickly occupied the arsenal and sent the gun-making machinery south. 

Major General Kenton Harper of the Virginia Militia was placed in command, and some 2000 state troops were quickly concentrated in the area.  Brigadier General Thomas Jackson succeeded Harper in command on April 28.

In May 1861, Virginia transferred her state forces to the Confederate government, and General Joseph E. Johnston took command of this force in the Shenandoah Valley.  By July, he had almost 12,000 men under his command.

The Army of the Shenandoah was organized into four brigades with J. E. B. Stuart's cavalry and artillery support.  The brigades were led by Brigadier General Thomas Jackson, Colonel Francis Bartow, Brigadier General Barnard Bee, and Brigadier General Kirby Smith.

This army was needed at Manassas to try to even up the odds as Union General Irvin McDowell advanced with the 35,000-man Army of Northeastern Virginia against the 20,000 men of General P. G. T. Beauregard's Confederate Army of the Potomac.

Johnston slipped away from the Union army in his front, also called the Army of the Shenandoah and led by General Robert Patterson, and transferred his men by rail to Manassas.  The Army of the Shenandoah linked up with the Army of the Potomac on the battlefield, with most of Johnston's army arriving as the battle was raging.

After the Confederate victory, the merger was made permanent.  On October 22, 1861, the Department of Northern Virginia was created with Johnston commanding.  It combined the District of the Potomac (Beauregard), the Valley District (Jackson), and the Aquia District (Holmes), and officially ended the Army of the Shenandoah.  Johnston's original Army of the Shenandoah would be a vital part of the new, larger Army of Northern Virginia.  Johnston commanded until he was seriously wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines when he was replaced by Robert E. Lee.

Related articles

• 150 Years Ago: Johnston Withdraws from Harper's Ferry (civilwarmeanderings.blogspot.com)
• 150 Years Ago: Patterson Crosses the Potomac (civilwarmeanderings.blogspot.com)
• 150 Years Ago: The Bull Run Campaign (civilwarmeanderings.blogspot.com)
• 150 Years Ago: Developments in the Bull Run Campaign (civilwarmeanderings.blogspot.com)

Armies: The Army of the Potomac (CSA)

The Confederate Army of the Potomac was short-lived.  It merged with the Army of the Shenandoah during the First Battle of Bull Run, and eventually became the First Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia.

The army began as state troops mobilized along an "Alexandria line," a long front stretching across northern Virginia from the Blue Ridge Mountains to the Chesapeake bay.  These troops were organized and Brigadier General Milledge Bonham was placed in command.  He was soon replaced with General P. G. T. Beauregard, who was tasked with organizing and training the raw troops from throughout the South and planning a response to the Northern invasion around Alexandria.

In July 1861, Beauregard had some 20,000 troops massed around Manassas Junction behind a sluggish stream called Bull Run.  They were organized into eight brigades with artillery and cavalry support.  The brigades were commanded by Bonham, Richard Ewell, David Jones, James Longstreet, Philip St. George Cocke, Jubal Early, and Nathan Evans.  Theophilus Holmes commanded the reserve brigade. 

Union General Irvin McDowell was advancing with some 35,000 troops, the Army of Northeastern Virginia.  Beauregard needed General Joseph E. Johnston's Army of the Shenandoah, some 12,000 men, to even up the odds with McDowell.

Johnston slipped away from the Shenandoah Valley and joined up with Beauregard.  The two armies linked up on the Bull Run battlefield, with some of Johnston's army arriving as the battle was raging.  Johnston outranked Beauregard, but mostly deferred to Beauregard's arrangements and plans for the upcoming battle.  After the Confederate victory, the merger of the two armies was made permanent.

On October 22, 1861, the Department of Northern Virginia was created with Johnston commanding.  It combined the District of the Potomac (Beauregard), the Valley District (Jackson), and the Aquia District (Holmes), and officially ended the Army of the Potomac.  Beauregard's original army would comprise the First Corps of this new army, which would eventually become known as the Army of Northern Virginia.  Johnson commanded until he was seriously wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines on May 31, 1862, and was replaced by General Robert E. Lee.

Related articles

• 150 Years Ago: Beauregard's Proclamation. (civilwarmeanderings.blogspot.com)
• 150 Years Ago: Friday, May 31, 1861 (civilwarmeanderings.blogspot.com)

150 Years Ago: Friday, May 17,1861

On May 17, 1861, Joseph Hooker and Nathaniel Lyon were both promoted to brigadier general in the Union army.  Hooker was assigned to defend Washington.  Lyon was in the midst of a campaign to drive pro-Southern forces out of Missouri.

Also on this date, North Carolina was admitted to the Confederacy contingent upon the state's ratification of the Confederate Constitution.

Related articles

• How St. Louis Was Won (opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com)

150 Years Ago: Saturday, March 16, 1861

On March 16, 1861, the Confederate Congress recommended that William Yancey, Pierre Rost, and Dudley Mann be appointed commissioners to England to negotiate for recognition.

Also on this date, in Arizona, a convention at Mesilla votes to leave the Union and join the Confederacy.  The Confederate government would later establish a territorial government for Arizona.

Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee of the 1st U.S. Cavalry was promoted to colonel.  The commission would be signed by Lincoln on March 28.

March 11, 1861: Situation Hopeless

On Monday, March 11, 1861, General-in-Chief Winfield Scott informed President Lincoln that Fort Sumter could not be held, that "the time for succoring Fort Sumter with any means at hand had passed away nearly a month ago."  Based on Anderson's latest message, which had arrived on March 4, Scott didn't know how long Anderson could hold out, but his description of the Charleston defenses led Scott to believe that it would take a fleet of warships and some 20,000 men to relieve the fort.

Also on this date, in Montgomery, Alabama, the Confederate Congress adopted the Confederate Constitution.

Brigadier General Braxton Bragg assumed command of all Confederate forces in Florida.

March 4, 1861: Lincoln's Inauguration

Until the 20th Amendment to the Constitution was ratified in 1933, moving Inauguration Day to January 20, March 4 was Inauguration Day in the United States.  On Monday, March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated as the sixteenth president of the United States.  Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger Taney administered the oath of office.  Hannibal Hamlin was sworn in as vice president.

The outgoing president James Buchanan began the day with one final cabinet meeting.  Secretary of War Joseph Holt arrived late with a telegram from Major Robert Anderson in Charleston.  Anderson was now saying that without supplies he could not stay long at Fort Sumter.  The bad news would be waiting for Lincoln when the swearing-in ceremony was done.

In his inaugural address in Montgomery, Jefferson Davis had proclaimed that secession was legal and right.  In his inaugural address, Lincoln took the opposing view -- that secession was illegal and wrong.  The Union was unbroken, states were eternally in it, and he himself had just taken a solemn oath to defend it.

Therefore...

"The power confided to me, will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the government, and to collect the duties and imposts."

This, in a nutshell, would be Lincoln's policy, and, at the moment, it was all about Fort Sumter. Lincoln was operating under the assumption that Anderson could hold out there indefinitely, and Lincoln could "hold, oocupy, and possess" it simply by maintaining the status quo.  If war began, the South would have to start it.

"In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The government shall not assail you. You can have no conflict, without being yourselves the aggressors. You have no oath in Heaven to destroy the government, while I have the most solemn one to 'preserve, protect, and defend' it."

Only after the ceremony ended, when he arrived at the White House and found Anderson's message, would Lincoln realize that this assumption was wrong.  Lincoln would have to make the first overt action -- resupplying Fort Sumter -- and soon.

Also on this date, in Montgomery, Alabama, the "Stars and Bars," the first official flag of the Confederacy, was raised over the Confederate Capital for the first time.  The flag was designed by Nicola Marschall and consisted of two wide red bars with a white bar in between.  In the upper left corner was a blue field with seven white stars, one for each of the seceded states.  On the battlefield, the flag was often mistaken for the Union Stars and Stripes, so the Confederate Battle Flag, with St. Andrew's Cross, was adopted.

February 25, 1861: Confederate Commissioners

On Monday, February 25, 1861, Confederate President Jefferson Davis appointed three men, A. B. Roman, Martin Crawford and John Forsyth, as commissioners.  They were to go to Washington and negotiate for Confederate recognition and for the surrender of Federal forts and other property in the seceded states.  They were unable to gain an official audience with anyone in the Lincoln administration.  It was Lincoln's view that the Southern states were still a part of the Union and negotiating with the commissioners would be giving tacit approval to the idea that they represented a foreign power.

February 21, 1861: A Final Cabinet Appointment

On Thursday, February 21, 1861, Confederate President Jefferson Davis made one final cabinet appointment, naming Stephen Mallory as Secretary of the Navy.  The Confederate Navy had just been officially established the day before.

Mallory was born in Trinidad. His father was from Connecticut, his mother from Ireland. The family moved to the United States, settling in Key West, Florida. After passing the bar, Mallory became an expert in maritime law, especially the laws of wrecks and salvage. He served in several minor public offices before being elected to the United States Senate in 1850. For much of his time in Washington, he served as chairman of the Committee on Naval Affairs, overseeing the modernization of the United States Navy.

February 20, 1861

On Wednesday, February 20, 1861, the Confederate Navy was officially established.  The Confederate Congress also empowered President Davis to contract for the manufacture and purchase of war goods.

February 19, 1861: Davis's Cabinet

On Tuesday, February 19, 1861, just one day after his inauguration, Jefferson Davis completed his cabinet:

Secretary of State Robert Toombs

Toombs, a Georgian, was a close personal friend of Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens. He served in the Georgia House of Representative, then won a seat in the United States House of Representatives as a Whig. As the Whig Party broke up, he flirted briefly with the Constitutional Union Party, then reluctantly became a Democrat. He served in the United States Senate from 1853-1861.

Secretary of War LeRoy Walker

Walker was a scion of a prominent Alabama family. He served in several legislative and judicial positions in state government, including two terms as Speaker of the Alabama House of Representatives. Davis didn't know Walker, but was looking for an Alabaman so that each state would be represented in the new government. Walker was recommended by a group of supporters.

Secretary of the Treasury Christopher Memminger

Memminger was born in Vaihingen, Würtemberg (now Stuttgart, Germany), but emigrated to Charleston, South Carolina, with his mother as a toddler. He served two long stints (1836-1852 and 1854-1860) in the state legislature, amassing twenty years as the head of the finance committee. Memminger was the leader of the committee that wrote South Carolina's Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union.

Attorney General Judah Benjamin

Benjamin was born in London. His parents, Sephardic Jews, moved to St. Croix, then the United States, settling in Charleston, South Carolina. After attending Yale College, Benjamin moved to New Orleans where he passed the bar, became a wealthy slaveowner, and served in both houses of the Louisiana legislature. In 1852, he became the first Jew to be elected to the United States Senate without renouncing the religion, resigning when Louisiana seceded.

Postmaster General John Reagan

Reagan was born in Sevier County, Tennessee, but moved to Texas as a young man. After passing the bar, he served one term in the state legislature, then served as a district judge. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1857 until Texas seceded.

Also on this date, in New Orleans, the U.S. Paymaster's office was seized by Louisiana state troops.

February 18, 1861: Davis's Inauguration

On Monday, February 18, 1861, Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Confederate States of America.  The ceremony took place in front of the state capitol in Montgomery, Alabama.  Howell Cobb, president of the Confederate Congress, administered the oath of office.

In his inaugural address, Davis declared that secession was right, reasonable and legal, a step taken out of necessity.  He hoped that there would be peace, but, if not, "it will remain to us with firm resolve to appeal to arms and invoke the blessing of Providence on a just cause."  He also declared that "a reunion with the States from which we have separated is neither practicable nor desirable."

February 16, 1861: The Man and the Hour

On February 16, 1861, Jefferson Davis arrived in Montgomery, Alabama, to serve as president of the Confederate States of America.

That evening, Davis appeared on the balcony of the Exchange Hotel and addressed a large, enthusiastic crowd.

It may be that our career will be ushered in in the midst of a storm; it may be that as this morning opened with clouds, rain and mist, we shall have to encounter inconveniences at the beginning; but as the sun rose and lifted the mist it dispersed the clouds and left us the pure sunshine of heaven. So will we progress the Southern Confederacy, and carry us safe into the harbor of constitutional liberty and political equality. We fear nothing...because, if war should come, if we must again baptize in blood the principles for which our fathers bled in the Revolution, we shall show that we are not degenerate sons, but will redeem the pledges they gave, preserve the rights they transmitted to us, and prove that Southern valor still shines as bright as in 1776...I will devote to the duties of the high office to which I have been called all that I have of heart, of head, of hand.

William Yancey also spoke. Paying tribute to Davis, "the statesman, the soldier and the patriot," he declared, "the man and the hour have met."

February 11, 1861: Lincoln Leaves Springfield

On Monday, February 11, 1861, President-elect Abraham Lincoln boarded a train in Springfield, Illinois, bound for Washington. The train left Springfield at 8 a.m.. Before departing, Lincoln addressed his hometown crowd for the final time:

My friends, no one not in my situation can appreciate my feeling of sadness at this parting. To this place and the kindness of these people I owe everything. Here I have lived for a quarter of a century, and have passed from a young man to an old man. Here my children have been born, and one is buried. I now leave, not knowing when, or whether ever, I may return, with a task before me greater than that which rested upon Washington. Without the assistance of that Divine Being who ever attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance I cannot fail. Trusting in Him who can go with me and remain with you and be everywhere for good, let us confidently hope that all will yet be well. To His care commending you, as I hope in your prayers you will commend me, I bid you an affectionate farewell.

In Montgomery, Alabama, Alexander Stephens was sworn in as the vice president of the Confederate States of America.

February 9, 1861: The Confederate President

On Saturday, February 9, 1861, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected provisional president of the Confederate States of America.  Alexander Stephens of Georgia was elected vice president.

There were no nominating conventions and no popular vote.  The executive officers of the Confederacy were chosen in the proverbial smoke-filled rooms by the 38 delegates to the convention of seceded states.  The votes were cast by states; each delegation cast one vote.

By unspoken agreement the delegates shied away from the radical fire-eaters who had done so much to drive the Deep South states out of the Union.  They wanted to show the border states and the world that this was a nation of moderate men who had no choice but to leave the Union and form their own government.

In Tennessee, voters rejected a proposal to call a state convention to consider secession.  The proposal was defeated by a vote of 68,282 to 59,449, with most of the pro-Union vote coming from the mountainous eastern part of the state.

At Pensacola, Florida, the U.S.S. Brooklyn arrived with supplies and reinforcements for Fort Pickens.  These were not landed; the federal government and the State of Florida had reached an agreement that no changes would be made on either side.

February 8, 1861: The Confederate Constitution

On the night of Friday, February 8, 1861, the convention of seceded states meeting at Montgomery, Alabama, adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America.

The constitution was copied almost verbatim from the U.S. Constitution with a few significant changes:

• The preamble omitted the general welfare clause and the phrase "a more perfect Union" and added a clause after "We the People" to make it clear that "the People" were acting through sovereign and independent states.


• The Confederate Constitution did away with the old cumbersome language of the U.S. Constitution -- "persons held to service or labor" -- and called a slave a slave.


• The importation of slaves from abroad was prohibited, but slavery would be protected in any new territory the Confederacy might acquire.


• Protective tariffs were forbidden, as were appropriations for internal improvements.


• The president would be limited to one six-year term, but was given a line item veto on appropriations bills.

The provisional constitution would be submitted to the states for ratification.  A permanent constitution would be adopted on March 11.

February 4, 1861: A New Government

On Monday, February 4, 1861, delegates from six of the seven states that had seceded -- Texas delegates would be along later -- met in convention in Montgomery, Alabama.  They worked mostly behind closed doors to form over the next few days to form a new government and elect the officials for the Confederate States of America.

They worked quickly.  It was important to them to have a functioning government up and running before Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as president on March 4.  They also wanted to be up and running so that cooler heads could take over the situation at Charleston.  South Carolina Governor Francis Pickens and some of the other secessionists might start a war before any preparations could be made.

The delegates would adopt a constitution, elect a president and vice president, and appoint themselves the new Confederate Congress.  It was all provisional.  The constitution would still have to be ratified by the states and none of it would become more permanent until February 1862.

After that first hectic week, they would settle down to complete the formation of the new government at a more leisurely pace.  At one point, they simply decided that all U.S. laws except those that conflicted with their new constitution would remain in effect in the Confederate States.